Artificial intelligence (AI)

A short history of the early days of artificial intelligence Open University

Embrace AI With Galaxy Book5 Pro 360: The First in Samsungs Lineup of New Powerhouse AI PCs Samsung Global Newsroom

a.i. its early days

The research published by ServiceNow and Oxford Economics found that Pacesetters are already accelerating investments in AI transformation. Specifically, these elite companies are exploring ways to break down silos to connect workflows, work, and data across disparate functions. For example, Pacesetters are operating with 2x C-suite vision (65% vs. 31% of others), engagement (64% vs. 33%), and clear measures of AI success (62% vs. 28%). Over the last year, I had the opportunity to research and develop a foundational genAI business transformation maturity model in our ServiceNow Innovation Office. This model assessed foundational patterns and progress across five stages of maturity.

Autonomous systems are still in the early stages of development, and they face significant challenges around safety and regulation. But they have the potential to revolutionize a.i. its early days many industries, from transportation to manufacturing. This can be used for tasks like facial recognition, object detection, and even self-driving cars.

These companies also have formalized data governance and privacy compliance (62% vs 44%). Pacesetter leaders are also proactive, meeting new AI governance needs and creating AI-specific policies to protect sensitive data and maintain regulatory compliance (59% vs. 42%). For decades, leaders have explored how to break down silos to create a more connected enterprise. Connecting silos is how data becomes integrated, which fuels organizational intelligence and growth. In the report, ServiceNow found that, for most companies, AI-powered business transformation is in its infancy with 81% of companies planning to increase AI spending next year.

During this time, researchers and scientists were fascinated with the idea of creating machines that could mimic human intelligence. Transformers-based language models are a newer type of language model that are based on the transformer architecture. Transformers are a type of neural network that’s designed to process sequences of data. Transformers-based language models are able to understand the context of text and generate coherent responses, and they can do this with less training data than other types of language models. Transformers, a type of neural network architecture, have revolutionised generative AI.

In this article, we’ll review some of the major events that occurred along the AI timeline. Featuring the Intel® ARC™ GPU, it boasts Galaxy Book’s best graphics performance yet. Create anytime, anywhere, thanks to the Dynamic AMOLED 2X display with Vision Booster, improving outdoor visibility and reducing glare. Experience a cinematic viewing experience with 3K super resolution and 120Hz adaptive refresh rate.

The output of one layer serves as the input to the next, allowing the network to extract increasingly complex features from the data. At the same time, advances in data storage and processing technologies, such as Hadoop and Spark, made it possible to process and analyze these large datasets quickly and efficiently. This led to the development of new machine learning algorithms, such as deep learning, which are capable of learning from massive amounts of data and making highly accurate predictions.

a.i. its early days

The creation and development of AI are complex processes that span several decades. While early concepts of AI can be traced back to the 1950s, significant advancements and breakthroughs occurred in the late 20th century, leading to the emergence of modern AI. Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig played a crucial role in shaping the field and guiding its progress.

The move generated significant criticism among Saudi Arabian women, who lacked certain rights that Sophia now held. Mars was orbiting much closer to Earth in 2004, so NASA took advantage of that navigable distance by sending two rovers—named Spirit and Opportunity—to the red planet. Both were equipped with AI that helped them traverse Mars’ difficult, rocky terrain, and make decisions in real-time rather than rely on human assistance to do so. The early excitement that came out of the Dartmouth Conference grew over the next two decades, with early signs of progress coming in the form of a realistic chatbot and other inventions.

The AI research community was becoming increasingly disillusioned with the lack of progress in the field. This led to funding cuts, and many AI researchers were forced to abandon their projects and leave the field altogether. In technical terms, the Perceptron is a binary classifier that can learn to classify input patterns into two categories. It works by taking a set of input values and computing a weighted sum of those values, followed by a threshold function that determines whether the output is 1 or 0. The weights are adjusted during the training process to optimize the performance of the classifier.

Logic at Stanford, CMU and Edinburgh

The explosive growth of the internet gave machine learning programs access to billions of pages of text and images that could be scraped. And, for specific problems, large privately held databases contained the relevant data. McKinsey Global Institute reported that « by 2009, nearly all sectors in the US economy had at least an average of 200 terabytes of stored data ».[262] This collection of information was known in the 2000s as big data. The AI research company OpenAI built a generative pre-trained transformer (GPT) that became the architectural foundation for its early language models GPT-1 and GPT-2, which were trained on billions of inputs. Even with that amount of learning, their ability to generate distinctive text responses was limited.

Another application of AI in education is in the field of automated grading and assessment. AI-powered systems can analyze and evaluate student work, providing instant feedback and reducing the time and effort required for manual grading. This allows teachers to focus on providing more personalized support and guidance to their students. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has revolutionized various industries and sectors, and one area where its impact is increasingly being felt is education. AI technology is transforming the learning experience, revolutionizing how students are taught, and providing new tools for educators to enhance their teaching methods. By analyzing large amounts of data and identifying patterns, AI systems can detect and prevent cyber attacks more effectively.

Business landscapes should brace for the advent of AI systems adept at navigating complex datasets with ease, offering actionable insights with a depth of analysis previously unattainable. In 2014, Ian Goodfellow and his team formalised the concept of Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs), creating a revolutionary tool that fostered creativity and innovation in the AI space. The latter half of the decade witnessed the birth of OpenAI in 2015, aiming to channel AI advancements for the benefit of all humanity.

Through the years, artificial intelligence and the splitting of the atom have received somewhat equal treatment from Armageddon watchers. In their view, humankind is destined to destroy itself in a nuclear holocaust spawned by a robotic takeover of our planet. AI was developed by a group of researchers and scientists including John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude Shannon. Additionally, AI startups and independent developers have played a crucial role in bringing AI to the entertainment industry. These innovators have developed specialized AI applications and software that enable creators to automate tasks, generate content, and improve user experiences in entertainment. Throughout the following decades, AI in entertainment continued to evolve and expand.

Edward Feigenbaum, Bruce G. Buchanan, Joshua Lederberg and Carl Djerassi developed the first expert system, Dendral, which assisted organic chemists in identifying unknown organic molecules. The introduction of AI in the 1950s very much paralleled the beginnings of the Atomic Age. Though their evolutionary paths have differed, both technologies are viewed as posing an existential threat to humanity.

Basically, machine learning algorithms take in large amounts of data and identify patterns in that data. So, machine learning was a key part of the evolution of AI because it allowed AI systems to learn and adapt without needing to be explicitly programmed for every possible scenario. You could say that machine learning is what allowed AI to become more flexible and general-purpose. Deep learning is a type of machine learning that uses artificial neural networks, which are modeled after the structure and function of the human brain. These networks are made up of layers of interconnected nodes, each of which performs a specific mathematical function on the input data.

It is crucial to establish guidelines, regulations, and standards to ensure that AI systems are developed and used in an ethical and responsible manner, taking into account the potential impact on society and individuals. There is an ongoing debate about the need for ethical standards and regulations in the development and use of AI. Some argue that strict regulations are necessary to prevent misuse and ensure ethical practices, while others argue that they could stifle innovation and hinder the potential benefits of AI.

The Development of Expert Systems

ANI systems are designed for a specific purpose and have a fixed set of capabilities. Another key feature is that ANI systems are only able to perform the task they were designed for. They can’t adapt to new or unexpected situations, and they can’t transfer their knowledge or skills to other domains. One thing to understand about the current state of AI is that it’s a rapidly developing field.

These new tools made it easier for researchers to experiment with new AI techniques and to develop more sophisticated AI systems. The Perceptron is an Artificial neural network architecture designed by Psychologist Frank Rosenblatt in 1958. It gave traction to what is famously known as the Brain Inspired Approach to AI, where researchers build AI systems to mimic the human brain.

The conference’s legacy can be seen in the development of AI programming languages, research labs, and the Turing test. Artificial Intelligence is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs. Reinforcement learning[213] gives an agent a reward every time every time it performs a desired action well, and may give negative rewards (or “punishments”) when it performs poorly. Dendral, begun in 1965, identified compounds from spectrometer readings.[183][120] MYCIN, developed in 1972, diagnosed infectious blood diseases.[122] They demonstrated the feasibility of the approach. First, they proved that there were, in fact, limits to what mathematical logic could accomplish. But second (and more important for AI) their work suggested that, within these limits, any form of mathematical reasoning could be mechanized.

The Enterprise AI Maturity Index suggests the vast majority of organizations are still in the early stages of AI maturity, while a select group of Pacesetters can offer us lessons for how to advance AI business transformation. But with embodied Chat GPT AI, it will be able to understand ethical situations in a much more intuitive and complex way. It will be able to weigh the pros and cons of different decisions and make ethical choices based on its own experiences and understanding.

IBM’s Watson Health was developed in 2011 and made its debut when it competed against two former champions on the quiz show “Jeopardy! Watson proved its capabilities by answering complex questions accurately and quickly, showcasing its potential uses in various industries. However, despite the early promise of symbolic AI, the field experienced a setback in the 1970s and 1980s. This period, known as the AI Winter, was marked by a decline in funding and interest in AI research. Critics argued that symbolic AI was limited in its ability to handle uncertainty and lacked the capability to learn from experience.

a.i. its early days

They’re able to perform complex tasks with great accuracy and speed, and they’re helping to improve efficiency and productivity in many different fields. This means that an ANI system designed for chess can’t be used to play checkers or solve a math problem. One example of ANI is IBM’s Deep Blue, a computer program that was designed specifically to play chess. It was capable of analyzing millions of possible moves and counter-moves, and it eventually beat the world chess champion in 1997. One of the biggest was a problem known as the “frame problem.” It’s a complex issue, but basically, it has to do with how AI systems can understand and process the world around them. As Pamela McCorduck aptly put it, the desire to create a god was the inception of artificial intelligence.

The term “artificial intelligence” was coined by John McCarthy, who is often considered the father of AI. McCarthy, along with a group of scientists and mathematicians including Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude Shannon, established the field of AI and contributed significantly to its early development. In conclusion, AI was created and developed by a group of pioneering individuals who recognized the potential of making machines intelligent. Alan Turing and John McCarthy are just a few examples of the early contributors to the field. Since then, advancements in AI have transformed numerous industries and continue to shape our future.

For example, ideas about the division of labor inspired the Industrial-Revolution-era automatic looms as well as Babbage’s calculating engines — they were machines intended primarily to separate mindless from intelligent forms of work. A much needed resurgence in the nineties built upon the idea that “Good Old-Fashioned AI”[157] was inadequate as an end-to-end approach to building intelligent systems. Cheaper and more reliable hardware for sensing and actuation made robots easier to build. Further, the Internet’s capacity for gathering large amounts of data, and the availability of computing power and storage to process that data, enabled statistical techniques that, by design, derive solutions from data. These developments have allowed AI to emerge in the past two decades as a profound influence on our daily lives, as detailed in Section II. All AI systems that rely on machine learning need to be trained, and in these systems, training computation is one of the three fundamental factors that are driving the capabilities of the system.

This would be far more efficient and effective than the current system, where each doctor has to manually review a large amount of information and make decisions based on their own knowledge and experience. AGI could also be used to develop new drugs and treatments, based on vast amounts of data from multiple sources. ANI systems are still limited by their lack of adaptability and general intelligence, but they’re constantly evolving and improving. As computer hardware and algorithms become more powerful, the capabilities of ANI systems will continue to grow. In contrast, neural network-based AI systems are more flexible and adaptive, but they can be less reliable and more difficult to interpret. Symbolic AI systems were the first type of AI to be developed, and they’re still used in many applications today.

It became fashionable in the 2000s to begin talking about the future of AI again and several popular books considered the possibility of superintelligent machines and what they might mean for human society. In the 1960s funding was primarily directed towards laboratories researching symbolic AI, however there were several people were still pursuing research in neural networks. In 1955, Allen Newell and future Nobel Laureate Herbert A. Simon created the « Logic Theorist », with help from J. Instead, it was the large language model GPT-3 that created a growing buzz when it was released in 2020 and signaled a major development in AI. GPT-3 was trained on 175 billion parameters, which far exceeded the 1.5 billion parameters GPT-2 had been trained on.

At this conference, McCarthy and his colleagues discussed the potential of creating machines that could exhibit human-like intelligence. The concept of artificial intelligence dates back to ancient times when philosophers and mathematicians contemplated the possibility of creating machines that could think and reason like humans. However, it wasn’t until the 20th century that significant advancements were made in the field.

  • The success of AlphaGo had a profound impact on the field of artificial intelligence.
  • However, it was in the 20th century that the concept of artificial intelligence truly started to take off.
  • AI systems also increasingly determine whether you get a loan, are eligible for welfare, or get hired for a particular job.

The AI boom of the 1960s was a period of significant progress in AI research and development. It was a time when researchers explored new AI approaches and developed new programming languages and tools specifically designed for AI applications. This research led to the development of several landmark AI systems that paved the way for future AI development. [And] our computers were millions of times too slow.”[258] This was no longer true by 2010. When it bested Sedol, it proved that AI could tackle once insurmountable problems. The ancient game of Go is considered straightforward to learn but incredibly difficult—bordering on impossible—for any computer system to play given the vast number of potential positions.

Turing is widely recognized for his groundbreaking work on the theoretical basis of computation and the concept of the Turing machine. His work laid the foundation for the development of AI and computational thinking. Turing’s famous article “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” published in 1950, introduced the idea of the Turing Test, which evaluates a machine’s ability to exhibit human-like intelligence. All major technological innovations lead to a range of positive and negative consequences. As this technology becomes more and more powerful, we should expect its impact to still increase.

During the conference, the participants discussed a wide range of topics related to AI, such as natural language processing, problem-solving, and machine learning. They also laid out a roadmap for AI research, including the development of programming languages and algorithms for creating intelligent machines. McCarthy’s ideas and advancements in AI have had a far-reaching impact on various industries and fields, including robotics, natural language processing, machine learning, and expert systems. His dedication to exploring the potential of machine intelligence sparked a revolution that continues to evolve and shape the world today. These approaches allowed AI systems to learn and adapt on their own, without needing to be explicitly programmed for every possible scenario.

They also contributed to the development of various AI methodologies and played a significant role in popularizing the field. Ray Kurzweil is one of the most well-known figures in the field of artificial intelligence. He is widely recognized for his contributions to the development and popularization of the concept of the Singularity. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become an integral part of our lives, driving significant technological advancements and shaping the future of various industries. The development of AI dates back several decades, with numerous pioneers contributing to its creation and growth. This is a timeline of artificial intelligence, sometimes alternatively called synthetic intelligence.

While Uber faced some setbacks due to accidents and regulatory hurdles, it has continued its efforts to develop self-driving cars. Ray Kurzweil has been a vocal proponent of the Singularity and has made predictions about when it will occur. He believes that the Singularity will happen by 2045, based on the exponential growth of technology that he has observed over the years. During World War II, he worked at Bletchley Park, where he played a crucial role in decoding German Enigma machine messages. Making the decision to study can be a big step, which is why you’ll want a trusted University. We’ve pioneered distance learning for over 50 years, bringing university to you wherever you are so you can fit study around your life.

Open AI released the GPT-3 LLM consisting of 175 billion parameters to generate humanlike text models. Microsoft launched the Turing Natural Language Generation generative language model with 17 billion parameters. Groove X unveiled a home mini-robot called Lovot that could sense and affect mood changes in humans. The development of AI in entertainment involved collaboration among researchers, developers, and creative professionals from various fields. Companies like Google, Microsoft, and Adobe have invested heavily in AI technologies for entertainment, developing tools and platforms that empower creators to enhance their projects with AI capabilities.

2021 was a watershed year, boasting a series of developments such as OpenAI’s DALL-E, which could conjure images from text descriptions, illustrating the awe-inspiring capabilities of multimodal AI. This year also saw the European Commission spearheading efforts to regulate AI, stressing ethical deployments amidst a whirlpool of advancements. This has raised questions about the future of writing and the role of AI in the creative process. While some argue that AI-generated text lacks the depth and nuance of human writing, others see it as a tool that can enhance human creativity by providing new ideas and perspectives.

The history of artificial intelligence is a journey of continuous progress, with milestones reached at various points in time. It was the collective efforts of these pioneers and the advancements in computer technology that allowed AI to grow into the field that it is today. These models are used for a wide range of applications, including chatbots, language translation, search engines, and even creative writing. New approaches like “neural networks” and “machine learning” were gaining popularity, and they offered a new way to approach the frame problem. Modern Artificial intelligence (AI) has its origins in the 1950s when scientists like Alan Turing and Marvin Minsky began to explore the idea of creating machines that could think and learn like humans. These machines could perform complex calculations and execute instructions based on symbolic logic.

Robotics made a major leap forward from the early days of Kismet when the Hong Kong-based company Hanson Robotics created Sophia, a “human-like robot” capable of facial expressions, jokes, and conversation in 2016. Thanks to her innovative AI and ability to interface with humans, Sophia became a worldwide phenomenon and would regularly appear on talk shows, including late-night programs like The Tonight Show. Making sure that the development of artificial intelligence goes well is not just one of the most crucial questions of our time, but likely one of the most crucial questions in human history.

From the first rudimentary programs of the 1950s to the sophisticated algorithms of today, AI has come a long way. In its earliest days, AI was little more than a series of simple rules and patterns. In 2023, the AI landscape experienced a tectonic shift with the launch of ChatGPT-4 and Google’s Bard, taking conversational AI to pinnacles never reached before. You can foun additiona information about ai customer service and artificial intelligence and NLP. Parallelly, Microsoft’s Bing AI emerged, utilising generative AI technology to refine search experiences, promising a future where information is more accessible and reliable than ever before. The current decade is already brimming with groundbreaking developments, taking Generative AI to uncharted territories. In 2020, the launch of GPT-3 by OpenAI opened new avenues in human-machine interactions, fostering richer and more nuanced engagements.

For example, language models can be used to understand the intent behind a search query and provide more useful results. BERT is really interesting because it shows how language models are evolving beyond just generating text. They’re starting to understand the meaning and context behind the text, which opens up a whole new world of possibilities.

AI was developed to mimic human intelligence and enable machines to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence. It encompasses various techniques, such as machine learning and natural language processing, to analyze large amounts of data and extract valuable insights. These insights can then be used to assist healthcare professionals in making accurate diagnoses and developing effective treatment plans. The development of deep learning has led to significant breakthroughs in fields such as computer vision, speech recognition, and natural language processing. For example, deep learning algorithms are now able to accurately classify images, recognise speech, and even generate realistic human-like language.

Traditional translation methods are rule-based and require extensive knowledge of grammar and syntax. Language models, on the other hand, can learn to translate by analyzing large amounts of text in both languages. They can also be used to generate summaries of web pages, so users can get a quick overview of the information they need without having to read https://chat.openai.com/ the entire page. This is just one example of how language models are changing the way we use technology every day. This is really exciting because it means that language models can potentially understand an infinite number of concepts, even ones they’ve never seen before. Let’s start with GPT-3, the language model that’s gotten the most attention recently.

Worries were also growing about the resilience of China’s economy, as recently disclosed data showed a mixed picture. Weak earnings reports from Chinese companies, including property developer and investor New World Development Co., added to the pessimism. Treasury yields also stumbled in the bond market after a report showed U.S. manufacturing shrank again in August, sputtering under the weight of high interest rates. Manufacturing has been contracting for most of the past two years, and its performance for August was worse than economists expected. Around the world, it is estimated that 250,000,000 people have non-standard speech.

AlphaGo was developed by DeepMind, a British artificial intelligence company acquired by Google in 2014. The team behind AlphaGo created a neural network that was trained using a combination of supervised learning and reinforcement learning techniques. This allowed the AI program to learn from human gameplay data and improve its skills over time. Today, expert systems continue to be used in various industries, and their development has led to the creation of other AI technologies, such as machine learning and natural language processing. Despite the challenges of the AI Winter, the field of AI did not disappear entirely. Some researchers continued to work on AI projects and make important advancements during this time, including the development of neural networks and the beginnings of machine learning.

As artificial intelligence (AI) continues to advance and become more integrated into our society, there are several ethical challenges and concerns that arise. These issues stem from the intelligence and capabilities of AI systems, as well as the way they are developed, used, and regulated. Through the use of ultra-thin, flexible electrodes, Neuralink aims to create a neural lace that can be implanted in the brain, enabling the transfer of information between the brain and external devices. This technology has the potential to revolutionize healthcare by allowing for the treatment of neurological conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and paralysis. Neuralink was developed as a result of Musk’s belief that AI technology should not be limited to external devices like smartphones and computers. He recognized the need to develop a direct interface between the human brain and AI systems, which would provide an unprecedented level of integration and control.

Through his research, he sought to unravel the mysteries of human intelligence and create machines capable of thinking, learning, and reasoning. Researchers have developed various techniques and algorithms to enable machines to perform tasks that were once only possible for humans. This includes natural language processing, computer vision, machine learning, and deep learning.

Known as “command-and-control systems,” Siri and Alexa are programmed to understand a lengthy list of questions, but cannot answer anything that falls outside their purview. « I think people are often afraid that technology is making us less human,” Breazeal told MIT News in 2001. “Kismet is a counterpoint to that—it really celebrates our humanity. This is a robot that thrives on social interactions” [6]. You can trace the research for Kismet, a “social robot” capable of identifying and simulating human emotions, back to 1997, but the project came to fruition in 2000.

Who Developed AI in Entertainment?

As we look towards the future, it is clear that AI will continue to play a significant role in our lives. The possibilities for its impact are endless, and the trends in its development show no signs of slowing down. In conclusion, the advancement of AI brings various ethical challenges and concerns that need to be addressed.

Diederik Kingma and Max Welling introduced variational autoencoders to generate images, videos and text. IBM Watson originated with the initial goal of beating a human on the iconic quiz show Jeopardy! In 2011, the question-answering computer system defeated the show’s all-time (human) champion, Ken Jennings.

Overall, the AI Winter of the 1980s was a significant milestone in the history of AI, as it demonstrated the challenges and limitations of AI research and development. It also served as a cautionary tale for investors and policymakers, who realised that the hype surrounding AI could sometimes be overblown and that progress in the field would require sustained investment and commitment. The AI Winter of the 1980s was characterised by a significant decline in funding for AI research and a general lack of interest in the field among investors and the public. This led to a significant decline in the number of AI projects being developed, and many of the research projects that were still active were unable to make significant progress due to a lack of resources.

Alan Turing’s legacy as a pioneer in AI and a visionary in the field of computer science will always be remembered and appreciated. In conclusion, AI has been developed and explored by a wide range of individuals over the years. From Alan Turing to John McCarthy and many others, these pioneers and innovators have shaped the field of AI and paved the way for the remarkable advancements we see today. Poised in sacristies, they made horrible faces, howled and stuck out their tongues. The Satan-machines rolled their eyes and flailed their arms and wings; some even had moveable horns and crowns.

a.i. its early days

Alltech Magazine is a digital-first publication dedicated to providing high-quality, in-depth knowledge tailored specifically for professionals in leadership roles. Instead, AI will be able to learn from every new experience and encounter, making it much more flexible and adaptable. It’s like the difference between reading about the world in a book and actually going out and exploring it yourself. These chatbots can be used for customer service, information gathering, and even entertainment.

Guide, don’t hide: reprogramming learning in the wake of AI – Nature.com

Guide, don’t hide: reprogramming learning in the wake of AI.

Posted: Wed, 04 Sep 2024 13:15:26 GMT [source]

Ancient myths and stories are where the history of artificial intelligence begins. These tales were not just entertaining narratives but also held the concept of intelligent beings, combining both intellect and the craftsmanship of skilled artisans. Looking ahead, the rapidly advancing frontier of AI and Generative AI holds tremendous promise, set to redefine the boundaries of what machines can achieve. 2016 marked the introduction of WaveNet, a deep learning-based system capable of synthesising human-like speech, inching closer to replicating human functionalities through artificial means.

In recent years, the field of artificial intelligence (AI) has undergone rapid transformation. Its stock has been struggling even after the chip company topped high expectations for its latest profit report. The subdued performance could bolster criticism that Nvidia and other Big Tech stocks simply soared too high in Wall Street’s frenzy around artificial-intelligence technology.

Overall, the emergence of NLP and Computer Vision in the 1990s represented a major milestone in the history of AI. To address this limitation, researchers began to develop techniques for processing natural language and visual information. Pressure on the AI community had increased along with the demand to provide practical, scalable, robust, and quantifiable applications of Artificial Intelligence. This happened in part because many of the AI projects that had been developed during the AI boom were failing to deliver on their promises.

Back to list

Laisser un commentaire

Votre adresse e-mail ne sera pas publiée. Les champs obligatoires sont indiqués avec *